Pregnancy Foetus Mother

Pregnancy Foetus Mother Pregnancy is a state whereby there is a symbiotic union between a mother and her foetus. During this period, all systems of the body change to accommodate the trophoblast, the immune system (a complex biological signalling system responsible for protecting us against infection, disease and foreign objects due to its ability to differentiate between self and non self) being one of these systems also undergoes a number of changes (Markert, 2005). The foetus is like a homograft attached to the uterine wall of the mother via the placenta, it inherits half its genetic makeup from its mother and the other half from its father. The paternal genes that it expresses are seen as antigens by the mothers immune system and are expected to cause the rejection of the foetus as a semi-allogenic tissue graft(2). Instead, the mothers immune system teaches itself to tolerate these genes and the development of the foetus is supported and regulated (Marker, 2005). The immunological puzzle that leads to t he sustainment of the foetus for the 9 months gestation period is known as the â€Å"immunological paradox of pregnancy† (Claman. 1993). A question that begets to be asked is how does the maternal body prevent rejection of the histoincompatible foetus and at the same time maintain enough maternal host defence mechanisms to fight disease and infection? To date it is not fully understood how this takes place, but it is known that in order to allow the foetus to escape rejection and immunological attacks by the maternal immune system, this symbiotic relationship must have distinctive immuno-regulatory actions. At the same time the mothers immune system must also provide protection against foreign antigens for her as well as her young. A number of explanations have been proposed during the last century as to why foetal rejection does not take place in healthy pregnancies. It is now agreed upon that the placenta plays an important role in this. The placenta is a very important organ because not only does it aid the transportation of nutrients and waste products and immunity between mother and foetus, it acts as an endocrine organ because it secretes growth factors and female hormones which helps maintain and support the pregnancy (Knobil and Neil, 1994) and finally the placental expression patterns of majorhistocompatibility complexes (MHC) is one of the vital factors that determine if a foetus is accepted or rejected, in humans these complexes are known as human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complexes (Claman. 1993). Although the mechanism for the maternal tolerance of the MHCs expressed by the fetus is still not fully known it is known that in humans, a number of HLA class I expressions have been detected in the placent a, these include HLA-C and HLA-G complexes. HLA-G is essential for the successful implantation of trophoblast and its protection from invasion. It does so by binding inhibitory receptors on T-lymphocytes and maternal uterine natural killer cells and thus protects the trophblast from maternal attacks caused by these cells. They also regulate cytokine secretion of cells, thus offering protection to the foetus (hla class 1 molecules reference). A recent study has also shown that HLA-G might inhibit the migration of NK cells across the placental endothelial cells. Till this day, no evidence has been brought forward to suggest that HLA-A, HLA-B and Class II MHCs are expressed in the placenta thus it is inferred that they are normally absent from the placenta during pregnancy (Bulmer and Johnson, 1985). Foetuses are protected not only from rejection during the gestation period but also from infections by the transmission of passive immunity from the mother.In 1892, Paul Erlich used mouse models to demonstrate that fetuses and neonates acquire protective immunity from their mothers both in utero and through breast milk. It has been shown that this involves the active transport of IgG from mother to her offspring. Passive immunity is transferred from the mother to her foetus through the placenta in the form of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and also via breast milk postnatally (Arvola et al 2000). IgG is the main defence against bacteria thus it accounts for 70-75% of antibodies found in human serum. Before birth the foetus is immunologically naà ¯ve because its synthesis of antibodies is very low. The immature immune system of the foetus is compensated for by the active transport of maternal IgG across the placenta into the foetal circulation. Before IgG reaches the foetal circulation, it h as to cross two cellular barriers, the barrier in contact with the maternal blood known as the syncythiotrophoblast and the capillary epithelium of the foetus. IgG antibodies are conveyed across the placenta and the intestinal epithelium via the human Fc receptor (add more). Although the ability of IgG to cross the placenta acts to convey passive immunity to the foetus there are instances where its ability to cross the placenta can have detrimental effects on the baby. An example of this is a condition called haemolytic disease of the new born (HDN). HDN is an alloimmune disease that develops in rhesus positive foetuses that have a rhesus negative mother. the mother produces IgG antibodies against the rhesus positive red blood cells which cross the placenta and attack red blood cells in the foetal circulation. It has been established that breast milk are rich in maternal cells including small proportions of epithelial cells, macrophages, leukocytes and T and B lymphocytes which make up a majority of cells found in milk on the other hand, 80% of the total cells found in the colostrum (first milk secreted after delivery) are mononuclear phagocytes. These cells aid the neonate by protecting the lumen of its gut and transferring immunity passively. Breast milk macrophages enter breast milk via the epithelium of the mammary gland, they are found to be highly phagocytic in breast milk and can easily be differentiated from other cells by the lipid rich inclusions found in their cytoplasm (breast milk macrophages reference). Milk and colostrum are also rich in the dimeric immunoglobin A. IgA antibodies are very important to the newborn because they are highly specific for pathogens found in the mucosae of the gut. This form of passive immunity from the mother thus conveys protection to the newborn until its immune response is mature enough to mount a good enough response (PDF2D). As well as transference of immunity, a mother can also convey infections to her foetus. The maternal transmission of an infection such as HIV, Hepatitis B and syphilis to foetus in utero, as a result of body fluid transmission during child birth and through breast milk is known as vertical transmission. During pregnancy, the maternal transmission of infection can result in a number of sequela. Infections found in mother have the potential of infecting the foetus or newborn. Side effects of infections include abortion or stillbirth, acute illnesses, congenital abnormalities, neonatal death and many more. The newborn can acquire infections in utero also known as intrauterine (congenital), during child birth (intrapartum) or after birth (postpartum). Different forms of infections can be vertically transmitted, these include viral and bacterial infections which are both covered in this essay. The most common examples of viral infections transferred from mother to her unborn child are cytomegalovirus, rubella both of which may cause severe neonatal disease or congenital defects, HIV and Hepatitis B. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a sexually transmitted virus that attacks the immune system by infecting CD4 cells thus leaving the host vulnerable to other infections. This virus can lead to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome which is characterised by a very low CD4 cell count (less than 200/ml). The transmission of this virus from mother to child can occur in utero, during child birth and via breast milk. The most common mode of transmission of HIV occurs during labour or at child birth, about 50-80% of vertical transmission occurs via this route. The reason being that the fetus is in direct contact with infected blood and secretions, as a result of ruptured membranes and transmission of maternal blood to the foetus during labour (birth by caesarean section before the beginning of labour and membrane rupture is proven to reduce this risk of transmission of HIV) (www.aafp.org). HIV transmission can also occur in utero. The foetus can become infected if it comes in contact with infected maternal blood and secretions. This contact can be the result of placental haemorrhage or by the foetus swallowing some amniotic fluid (www. the-aids-pandemic.blogspot.com). The final mechanism by which vertical transmission if HIV can take place is through breast milk which occurs in 16-29% of cases (www. the-aids-pandemic.blogspot.com). Hepatitis B is a viral infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (a double stranded DNA virus which caused liver damage). In 2004, Zhang et al provided evidence that the main route of transmission of hepatitis from mother to foetus was via the placenta. Mothers that have the acute form of the virus and that are also infected in the first trimester of pregnancy have a 10% chance of passing the virus to their neonates. This percentage increases to a staggering 80-90% if the mothers were infected in the 3rd trimester. 90% of neonates on the other hand acquire the infection if the virus chronically infected the women (Hieber et al 1977). Transmission is also caused by the exposure of the foetus to infected blood and body fluids. A hepatitis positive mother has a 20% chance of passing the infection to her offspring during child birth, this risk increases to 90% if the mother is also positive for the hepatitis B e antigen (www.perinatology.com). According to Hill et al (2002), breast milk of infected individuals contains HBV DNA, but using appropriate immunoprophylaxis nullifies the transmission of HBV. Rubella (the German measles) is a condition caused by the rubella virus. This virus is moderately contagious. It can cross the placenta causing a condition known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) which leads to a number of side effects to the baby including low birth weight, deafness, mental retardation, congenital heart failure and death. The severity of the effect depends on the period that the fetus is infected; during the first two months of gestation the chances of foetal damage caused by infection is 65-0%, this chance decreases to 30-35% during the third month and finally to a mere 1-2% in the 20th week. There are two routes through which a newborn can acquire a bacterial infection, these routes include intraturerine (transplacental and assending infection) and intrapartum when the new born comes in contact with infected secretions and blood during delivery. Congenital syphilis is a severe and life threatning multisystem infection caused by the vertical transmission of the spirochete Treponema palladium to the foetus. The transplacental transmission rate is 60-80% Vertical transmission of congenital syphilis can occur at anytime during pregnancy although the infection is more likely to be transmitted by women in the primary and secondary stages of the disease as opposed to the latent stage.Just like in adult syphilis, this infection is categorised into early disease which is seen in children two years or younger and late disease which is seen in children over the age of two(http://www.merck.com). During child birth organisms such as N. gonorrhoea, B. streptococci and C. trachomonas bacteria that are naturally found in the female reproductive system can also colonise the newborn. A list of these bacteria are shown in fig 1 of the appendix attached. Vertical transmission of Immunity during pregnancy is complex and one that intrigues many a soul. Till this date its mechanisms are not fully known. What is known is that a number of complex systems are involved in the process and without the foetus will either be rejected or infected by pathogens.

Successful Completion Of Compulsory Education Education Essay

IntroductionSuccessful completion of mandatory instruction provides the school departers with chances either to foster their instruction or to come in into full clip employment. The degrees at which these pupils pass reflect a great trade non merely on their single public presentation but besides that of the schools that work competitively difficult for good public presentation on the national conference tabular arraies. Whereas successful post-16 patterned advance is of import for the pupils, the pick of which path they should take is every bit of import. Through debut of co-curricular and work related larning programmes to schools, the authorities has ever made proviso for the school departers to be good prepared for either the universe of work or patterned advance to further or higher instruction after their compulsory instruction, irrespective of their capablenesss or societal backgrounds ( Thomas 2001:2 ) . Cropley ( 1978 ) suggested that society in general demands that the scho ol system should ease the scholar with full and satisfactory personal growing and increased ego realization, in that success of immature people in instruction attainments besides has a great bearing towards the society ‘s future economic prosperity ( Thomas 2001:21 ) . This survey will research the chances available for the post-16 patterned advance and look into the inhibiting barriers that cause some immature people to be neither in employment nor in instruction and preparation ( NEET ) in malice of the authorities ‘s reforms to the system, as stated in the undermentioned infusion from appendix 1: â€Å" Reducing the proportion of 16- to 18-year-olds non in instruction, employment or preparation ( NEET ) is a precedence for the Government. Bing NEET between the ages of 16-18 is a major forecaster of ulterior unemployment, low income, teenage maternity, depression and hapless physical wellness. No individual bureau holds all the keys to cut downing NEET ; LAs, schools, the Learning and Skills Council, young person support services and employers all have cardinal functions to play. † DcsfStatement of PurposeThe intent of this survey is to turn to the research inquiry â€Å" What are the chances and the challenges faced in the procedure of patterned advance to the Post Compulsory Education? † A literature hunt will be done to research the programmes on offer, the chances they provide and the challenges faced by the pupils in the procedure of patterned advance to farther instruction establishments. This will take to a find of the degree of success in footings of enga gement and aid to place any barriers that cause some immature people to be excluded from these programmes stoping up non in employment or instruction and preparation ( NEET ) . The survey will besides reexamine some of the paperss produced by authorities backed scholarly commissions assigned with the duty of reforming instruction programmes, to set up grounds why it was found necessary to widen chances for farther instruction and what impact it has had on the pupil population in England. Such paperss will include among others studies by the Nuffield Review committee ( 2005-2006 ) , the Dearing study and the Tomlinson Report ( 2004 ) .Research inquiriesThis survey is based on one cardinal inquiry: â€Å" What are the chances and challenges in the procedure of patterned advance to the Post Compulsory Education in England? † This inquiry will be addressed by interrupting it down into two research inquiries:What are the post-compulsory instruction programmes on offer in England?W hat are the inhibiting factors faced by pupils in the procedure of post-16 patterned advance?Significance of the surveyThis research is intended to increase the consciousness and apprehension of the significance of the station compulsory educational programmes to the post-16 pupils and their parents. A survey of the procedure of patterned advance to the post-compulsory educational programmes is intended to place issues that pose as challenges or suppressing factors to the immature people and suggest possible ways to enable more engagement, taking to decreased Numberss of those non in employment of instruction and preparation ( NEET ) . It is besides hoped that such cognition will profit all stakeholders within the system towards improved collaborative engagement and bringing of services. This survey will prosecute pupils in a study where questionnaires will be used to pull out textual informations from the take parting respondents, which will be chiefly the pupils. The chief Centre of survey will be the take parting colleges subject to blessing by the appropriate ethical commission, and permission from the college disposal. Through a particular agreement with the disposal a subdivision of parents to the take parting pupils will be accessed to seek their sentiment on the post-compulsory instruction programmes available for their kids.Focus of the surveyThe research inquiry â€Å" What are the chances and challenges in the procedure of patterned advance to the Post Compulsory Education in England? † is a far making study inquiry and undoubtedly surpasses the range of this survey. For practicality of the survey nevertheless a particular focal point will be made on two farther colleges within Berkshire, a county with legion farther instruction colleges with more holding been built in the recent yesteryear. The probe will take on a general attack to the research inquiry in the position of placing what motivates the pupils and what they find to be barriers in the post-16 patterned advance. It is with the apprehension that schools play a prima function in finding the hereafter of students through academic attainments every bit good as through the school ethos as the chief beginning of inspiration for the scholar ( Thomas 2001 ) .In an effort to turn to the research inquiry, the survey will concentrate on the undermentioned elements:To set up the principle for the post-16 programmes available to pupils in England. Explore the standards for registration in the post-16 programmes, and its inducements Factors that both influence and suppress the post-16 patterned advance procedure, impacting determinations for or against engagement.Aim of the surveyThe chief aim of this survey will be to research options and place challenges that are faced in the procedure of patterned advance to further and higher instruction in England, and how these have engaged scholars. Recommendations from this survey will be made to take parting schools for effectual execution of such positions as will be collected from pupils and some of their parents. It is hoped that the survey will excite and lend to the preparation of in-depth research into similar programmes in some of the states in the underdeveloped universe, where instruction for all is on top of the political docket as one of the millenary development ends ( MDG 2015 ) .A reappraisal of the literature turn toing the survey inquiriesWhat are the post-compulsory instruction programmes on offer in England?Career counsel and reding sing their post-16 patterned advance paths is made available to the pupils in their concluding twelvemonth of compulsory instruction through Connexions direct, a agency dedicated to the service and advice of immature people ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.connexions-direct.com/index.cfm? pid=351 ) . A timetable for the whole twelvemonth is made available to the pupils to help them in be aftering the events that will finally take to their determinations on which path they will take ( see appendix2 ) . After finishing their compulsory instruction, immature people can take to go on in full clip school or articulation college, do an apprenticeship or acquire straight into employment, sooner with preparation ( Dcsf ) . For those aged between 16 and 17 there is what is known as ‘September Guarantee ‘ which is an agreement that guarantees the pick of those interested to stay in school or go on into college: â€Å" the ‘September Guarantee ‘ agencies that they will decidedly be able to go on learningaˆÂ ¦Everyone between 16 and 17 due to go forth instruction is guaranteed an offer of a topographic point on an appropriate courseA – and information, advice and counsel to assist weigh up their options. † ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.direct.gov.uk/en/EducationAndLearning/14To19/OptionsAt16/DG_10013574 ) Options runing from ‘A ‘ degrees to work related makings are available for the post-16 patterned advance. Presently selected schools and colleges do offer the 14-19 twelvemonth old sheepskin ( ibid. ) which is one of the latest add-ons to the instruction reforms. Whichever path immature people choose to take the advice given to them is â€Å" it pays to maintain acquisition as more and more, employers are looking for people with higher degree accomplishments and makings † ( Dcsf ) . The authorities acknowledges that makings are non a warrant for occupations although it encourages immature people to take part in the available chances as they will stand a better opportunity for both their societal and economic prosperity in a competitory economic universe.What are the inhibiting factors faced by pupils in the procedure of post-16 patterned advance?Having seen the broad scope of chances available to immature people after their mandatory instruction with all the option s and free counsel available through Connexions Direct, this inquiry will now turn to ways in which the construction of the post-16 instruction system inhibits and bounds engagement in farther survey by some pupils. Whereas schools are meant to assist find the future engagement of pupils in post-16 instruction, Thomas ( 2001 ) classifies possible barriers to the system to include those ironically created by the compulsory instruction system. One of these classs is making and accomplishment and the 2nd 1 is attitudes towards larning, page 73. Whereas pupils ‘ failure to accomplish a lower limit class has frequently been a cause for many lost chances to come on to post -16 instruction, it must be born in head that even where success is registered, it is most of import to cognize what impact the school has had on their perceptual experience as scholars. Whether acquisition was gratifying or excessively hard will be seen in the manner they respond to the post-16 chances. The attitude formed about school and acquisition contributes a great trade to the students ‘ self-efficacy ( Bandura1997 ) and formation of their self image. It is hence in the involvement of the stakeholders within the instruction system, chiefly the instructors, pupils and their parents that the school environment provides the scholar with experiences that contribute to the image they have of themselves ( ibid ) . Pring et Al ( 2009 ) suggest that as surveies in educational attainment and societal mobility indicate, the function which schools play in altering lives can be limited in a sense that ‘family background continues to be a major determiner ‘ ( Coffey, 2001:68, 69 ) , and that public presentation in schools is mostly influenced by the societal category background. Sing societal category, Pring et Al ( 2009 ) had this to state: ‘aˆÂ ¦the more disadvantaged the societal category background, the lower the degree of educational attainment that is likely to be achievedaˆÂ ¦ Furthermore, immature people from less advantaged category backgrounds are less likely to take up chances available to them to come on through the educational system even where they are sufficiently qualified to do the progression' Pring et Al ( 2009:32 ) It is beyond the range of this survey to discourse the relationship between societal exclusion and response to post-16 educational programmes it can be stated harmonizing to earlier surveies that ‘social category influences school accomplishment and this in portion impedes or enhances patterned advance into post-compulsory instruction ‘ ( Thomas,2001:74 )MethodologyCohen et Al, ( 2007 ) refer to methods as ‘instruments of roll uping and construing informations ( page 83 ) ; whilst methodological analysis is the agencies which gives a descriptive attack and sort of paradigm to the survey ( page 47 ) . Educational research methods include interviews, questionnaires, and observations, among others. The determination as to which instrument is most suited for informations aggregation in this survey will depend chiefly on the ‘methodology ‘ or the nature of this research. The nature of this survey is both fact-finding and descriptive, that is it sets out to lo ok into and depict chances and barriers presented by the procedure of patterned advance to the post-compulsory instruction system. As asserted by Best, ( 1970 ) , this research is concerned with conditions or relationships regulating 16 twelvemonth olds as they enter post-compulsory instruction stage. With this background hence this research worker will utilize the questionnaires to roll up and construe the positions of both pupils and their parents ongoing post-16 educational programmes available to them in the participating colleges. The survey will look at pupils as persons but the information collected will be interpreted in footings of the representative community.The study research methodThis method is most appropriate for this survey as it intends to find present educational conditions in a non-experimental manner, Hartas ( 2010 ) . The information will be collected in a non randomised manner by usage of questionnaires to be completed at will by take parting pupils. The metho d will give textual informations sing chances, challenges and/or barriers that are present in the passage from the compulsory to post-compulsory instruction. The principle for usage of this method is dependent on the premise that the respondent ‘s positions and sentiments agree with their actions and it is hope that they will reply these inquiries truthfully. It is besides possible that non all respondents may be able to give their honest positions due to personal failings such as the usage of linguistic communication, or due to a deficiency of self-efficacy. Another premise asserted by Hartas ( 2010 ) is that the sample constitutes a homogeneous group of respondents with comparable instances where they all interpret the inquiries in similar ways without which the responses may non be dependable. Cohen, et Al ( 2007 ) assert that studies can take on the nature of either longitudinal, transverse sectional or tendency surveies. Longitudinal surveies are used to roll up informations over an drawn-out period of clip and are applicable to such surveies as relate do developing phenomena. Harmonizing to Ruspini, ( 2002:24 ) , they enable research workers to analyze the continuance of societal phenomena foregrounding similarities, differences and alterations over clip in regard of one or more variables or participants, place long term effects and explain alterations in footings of stable features such as sex or a variable characteristic such as income, ( Cohen, et al 2007:212 ) . Because this survey will be confined within a fixed and limited timeframe it renders this type of study out of the inquiry. On the other manus a ‘Cross Sectional ‘ survey is one that produces a descriptive image of a population at a peculiar point in clip, as in the instance of carry oning a nose count. In instruction, cross sectional surveies involve indirect steps of the nature and rate of alterations in the physical and rational development of samples of kids drawn from representative age degrees. Harmonizing to Cohen, et Al, ( 2007:213 ) , the individual ‘snapshot ‘ or the representative image of the cross sectional survey provides the research worker with informations for either retrospective or prospective question. The 3rd type of study, the ‘Trend survey ‘ , focuses on factors instead than people, where these factors are studied within a specific timeframe ( Borg & A ; Gall 1989:422 ) . This survey peculiar will take on a ‘Trend Study ‘ nature of an enquiry where two sets of 10 pupils each will be interviewed from two different farther instruction colleges to function as a representative sample for intents of this survey. Following is a description of the educational methods which will be used efficaciously in the aggregation of informations for intents of this research.QuestionnairesUsing the written questionnaire, the pupils will be approached in a more or less personal manner as it works as a replacement for the personal interviews ( Cohen and Manion, 1998 ) . In add-on to turn toing the survey inquiries, these questionnaires will besides be used to roll up informations on issues that are of concern to pupils in the current system of instruction, and solicit for any suggestions they might wish to be included in the recommendations ensuing from the survey. Sing its efficiency for this nature of informations aggregation, Borg & A ; Gall, ( 1989: 426 ) asserts that this method is really instrumental when the research worker needs to rapidly and easy acquire tonss of information from people in a non baleful manner, hence the determination for it to be used in this survey.Policy Documentary ReviewPolicy Documentary Review as a research method is done by analyzing and reexamining policies and their application. Using this method the research worker will analyze some of the paperss produced by assorted committees assigned with the duty to reform instruction of 14-19 twelvemonth olds. Documents to be reviewed in this survey will include the Tomlinson study and the Nuffield committee study, which were made as recommendations to the authorities ‘s section of instruction ( DCSF ) in the old government.How the textual information will be analysedHow the information is traveling to be analysedRationale for the Selection of Participating CollegesPopulation harmonizing to Hartas, ( 2010:67 ) is a group of persons or administrations that portion the same feature that is of involvement to a survey, in this instance the pupils in the procedure of post-16 patterned advance throughout England. Such a figure will evidently be inexplicable in a survey of this size nevertheless, a ‘repr esentative sample ‘ in this instance as defined by Hartas ( 2010 ) will be the pupils selected from the two colleges of farther instruction within Berkshire. The procedure of choosing this sample is really of import as it is pertinent to the cogency of this research, and it will be explored further in the chapter on methodological analysis. Nevertheless the cardinal factors that need to be mentioned here include what judgement will be based on viz. , the sample size, representativeness of the parametric quantities of the sample, handiness to the sample and the trying scheme to be used ( Cohen, et Al. 2007:100 ) .Bibliography:Bell, J ( 2006 ) Making Your Research Undertaking: A Guide for first clip research workers in instruction, wellness and societal scientific discipline 4th erectile dysfunction. ; .Maidenhead: Open University Press Borg, W.R. & A ; Gall. M D. ( 1989 ) Educational Research: An Introduction 5th. Ed. London: Longman Blaikie, N. ( 2000 ) . Planing Social Research: The logic of expectancy. Cambridge: A Polity Press Bryman, A. ( 2008 ) Social Research Methods, 3rd. erectile dysfunction. Oxford: Oxford University Press Coffey, A ( 2001 ) Education and Social Change ; Buckingham: The Open University Press Corbetta, P. ( 2003 ) SOCILA RESEARCH: theory, Methods and Techniques. London: Sage Publications Cohen, L. & A ; Manion, L. ( 2007 ) Research Methods in Education 6th erectile dysfunction. London: Routledge. Creswell, J.W. ( 2008 ) Educational Research: Planning Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research.3rd.ed. Pearson Education International Creswell, J.W. ( 2009 ) Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. Cropley, A. J. ( 1978 ) Lifelong Education: a psychological analysis ; Oxford: Pergamon Press. Dcsf ( 2009 ) hypertext transfer protocol: //www.direct.gov.uk/en/EducationAndLearning/14To19/OptionsAt16/DG_10013574 Department for Education and Skills ( DfES ) ( 2002 ) Transforming youth work: Resourcing excellent young person services. London: DfES / Connexions. Dewey, John, ( 1997 ) ; Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Doctrine of Education. New York: the Free Press. Flude, M. ( 1989 ) , School, work and equality: a reader. London: Hodder and Stoughton in association with the Open University. Fraenkel, J.R. & A ; Wallen, N.E. ( 2006 ) How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education 6th. Ed. London: McGrawHill Geertz, ( 1973 ) The reading of Cultures, New York: Basic Books. Gerwitz, S & A ; Cribb, A. ( 2009 ) Understanding instruction: a sociological position Cambridge: A Polity Press Graham-Brown, S. ( 1996 ) Education in the Developing World: Conflict and crisis. London: Longman Hartas, D. ( 2010 ) Educational Research and Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative attacks. London: Continuum Hodgson, A. et Al ( 2009 ) Education for All: The Future of Education and Training for the 14-16 twelvemonth olds. London: Routledge Leonor, M. D. ( 1985 ) Unemployment, Schooling, and Training in Developing Countries ; London: CROOM HELM Lichtman, M. ( 2006 ) Qualitative Research: A User ‘s Guide. London: Sage Publications. Liz, T ( 2001 ) Widening engagement in Post-Compulsory Education ; London: Continuum. Pring, R et Al ( 2009 ) Education for all: The Future of Education and Training for 14-19 twelvemonth olds ; London: Routledge. Pring, R ( 2009 ) ‘The demand to develop a deeper national argument ‘ Nuffield Review 14-19 Education and Training workshop, England and Wales, accessed from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.philosophy-of-education.org/pdfs/Saturday/Pring % 20workshop.pdf The Tomlinson Report: 14-19 ‘Curriculum and Qualifications Reform, ‘ accessed from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/ps/documents/briefing_papers/ps0007_the_tomlinson_report_14_19_curriculum_and_qualifications_reform_feb_2005.pdf Thomas, L. ( 2001 ) Widening Engagement in Post Compulsory Education ; London: Continuum Tight, M. ( 1996 ) KEY CONCEPTS IN ADULT EDUCATION AND TRAINING London: Routledge. Tomlinson, M ( 2004 ) ‘ 14-19 ‘Curriculum and Qualifications Reform: a concluding Report of the Working Group on 14-19 Reform, October 2004 ‘ , www.14-19 reform.gov.uk, accessed from hypertext transfer protocol: //www.dcsf.gov.uk/14-19/documents/Final % 20Report.pdf Walford, G. ( 1987 ) DOING SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION ; London: The Falmer Press Watson, K. ( 1983 ) Youth Education and Employment: International Perspectives. London: CROOM HELM

King of Canada

Stat 332 Sampling and Experimental Design: (Due: 12:29pm before class, Friday, Oct 19, 2012) Assignment 2 1. In the upcoming US presidential election this November, Florida is a key swing state that is very important in determining the outcome. Currently the Democratic candidate Barack Obama and the Republican candidate Mitt Romney are virtually tied in recent polls. For this question, you can use 9 million as our population size; this is approximately the total number votes in the 2008 presidential election in Florida. a) The latest poll asked 890 likely voters and found that the proportion of Florida residents likely to vote for the Democratic candidate is 47%, construct a 95% con? dence interval for this estimate under the SRSWOR. By the way, the support for Republican is 46%, and the rest are undecided. (b) If a news organization wants to conduct a SRSWOR survey to ? nd out the percentage of Florida residents supporting the Democratic candidate, what is the sample size needed to achieve a result which is accurate within 0. percentage point, 19 out 20 times? 2. We have 120 students in Stat332. (a) What is the total number of possible samples of size 10 under SRSWOR? (b) Suppose that among the 120 students of Stat332, 60 are male students and 60 are female students. We want to perform a STSRS (strati? ed simple random sampling) with male students and female students being two strata, and we want to survey 5 students from each stratum, what is the total number of possible samples? What is the ratio of the two numbers (STSRS/SRSWOR)? 3. Lohr (2010) Ch3, Q10 part a.Hard shell clams may be sampled by using a dredge. Clams do not tend to be uniformly distributed in a body of water, however, as some areas provide better habitat than others. Thus, taking a simple random sample is likely to result in a large estimated variance for the number of clams in an area. Russell (1972) used strati? ed random sampling to estimate the total number of bushels of hard shell clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. The area of interest was divided into four strata based on preliminary surveys that identi? d areas in which clams were abundant. Then nh dredge tows were made in stratum h, for h = 1, 2, 3, 4. The acreage for each stratum was known, and Russell calculated that the area ? shed during a standard dredge tow was 0. 039 acres, so that we may use Nh = 25. 6 ? Areah . Here are the results from the survey taken before the commercial season. Estimate the total number of bushels of clams in the area, and give the standard error of your estimate. Stratum 1 2 3 4 Area Number of (Acres) Tows Made 222. 81 4 49. 61 6 50. 25 3 197. 1 5 Average Number of Sample Variance Bushels per Tow for Stratum 0. 44 0. 068 1. 17 0. 042 3. 92 2. 146 1. 80 0. 794 4. Assume the sample variance in Q3 is a good estimate for the strata variance, and we want a strati? ed sample size of n = 21. (a) Calculate the stratum sample sizes under proportional allocati on. (b) Calculate the stratum sample sizes under optimal (Neyman) allocation. (c) What are the values (approximately) of V (? st ) with sample size allocations of (a) and y (b), respectively? Compare these two variances and comment. . Foresters want to estimate the average age of trees in a stand. Determining age is cumbersome, because one needs to count the tree rings on a core taken from the tree. In general, though, the older the tree, the larger the diameter, and diameter is easy to measure. The foresters measure the diameter of all 1132 trees and ? nd that the population mean equals 10. 3. They then randomly select 20 trees for age measurement. The data can be downloaded as hw2q5. txt from course website on Waterloo Learn and read into R using d

The Study s Intervention Was An Asp That Was Implemented...

The study’s intervention was an ASP that was implemented twice per week and lasted for 12 weeks. The bilingual ASP included about a half an hour of health education and an hour of physical activity. The valid curriculum was also adapted culturally for Mexican-American children. The health outcomes included BMI, BMI percentile, aerobic capacity, dietary preferences, and health knowledge. Aerobic capacity was measured via the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run (PACER) test, and dietary preferences and health knowledge were measured by a self-completed survey and previously validated questionnaire called the After School Student Questionnaire (ASSQ). The effect size for the sample size obtained for this study was calculated to be 0.30 by Cohen’s d, which the authors reasoned to be acceptable due to precedence where a childhood obesity meta-analysis accepted such an effect size. Analyses of a three-level design were performed, and it included use of regression models and maximum likelihood estimations. The p-value was provided with both p0.05 was given for statistical significance. The results found the sample was generally similar, except that the comparison group had more Hispanic children than the intervention group. PA knowledge, attitude, and behavior data were not statistically significant, but the trend was positive. Dietary knowledge increased significantly (p=.009) and nutrient-lacking food intake decreased (p=.035). BMI in the intervention group alsoShow MoreRelatedWal-Mart Case Study – Rfid and Supply Chain Management7654 Words   |  31 Pagespicture as to how technology plays a vital role in today’s’ businesses. Traditionally, technology has been upgraded in billing systems and for storage purposes. A new area where technology could be applied to, where many expenses could be saved was in inventory management and logistics. 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